The difference is that there is either no control group, no random selection or no active manipulation variable. Stone, Eugene F., Research Methods in Organizational Behavior, Glenview, IL, 1981. The idea is to test a measurement model established given newly collected data against theoretically-derived constructs that have been measured with validated instruments and tested against a variety of persons, settings, times, and, in the case of IS research, technologies, in order to make the argument more compelling that the constructs themselves are valid (Straub et al. As examples, the importance of network structures and scaling laws are discussed for the development of a broad, quantitative, mathematical understanding of issues that are important in health, including ageing and mortality, sleep, growth, circulatory systems, and drug doses. QtPR is also not qualitative positivist research (QlPR) nor qualitative interpretive research. This rising ubiquity of ICT has meant that we must monitor its role in education. It is not about fitting theory to observations. (1935). These nuances impact how quantitative or qualitative researchers conceive and use data, they impact how researchers analyze that data, and they impact the argumentation and rhetorical style of the research (Sarker et al., 2018). Within statistical bounds, a set of measures can be validated and thus considered to be acceptable for further empiricism. Statistics Done Wrong: The Woefully Complete Guide. It is necessary for decision makers like education ministers, school administrators, and educational institutions to be . For example, if one had a treatment in the form of three different user-interface-designs for an e-commerce website, in a between-subject design three groups of people would each evaluate one of these designs. Are these adjustments more or less accurate than the original figures? An issue of shared meaning could occur if, for instance, you are attempting to measure compassion. How do you know that you are measuring compassion and not, say, empathy, which is a socially constructed concept that to many has a similar meaning? Validation Guidelines for IS Positivist Research. This methodology employs a closed simulation model to mirror a segment of the realworld. Human subjects are exposed to this model and their responses are recorded. Gelman, A., & Stern, H. (2006). The researcher controls or manipulates an independent variable to measure its effect on one or more dependent variables. In other words, data can differ across individuals (a between-variation) at the same point in time but also internally across time (a within-variation). Researchers using field studies typically do not manipulate independent variables or control the influence of confounding variables (Boudreau et al., 2001). MIS Quarterly, 34(2), 345-366. The importance of quantitative research Quantitative research is a powerful tool for anyone looking to learn more about their market and customers. Strictly speaking, natural experiments are not really experiments because the cause can usually not be manipulated; rather, natural experiments contrast naturally occurring events (e.g., an earthquake) with a comparison condition (Shadish et al., 2001). DeVellis, R. F., & Thorpe, C. T. (2021). The last forty years have seen significant growth in the area of research in science education in Brazil. Linear probability models accommodate all types of independent variables (metric and non-metric) and do not require the assumption of multivariate normality (Hair et al., 2010). Henseler, J., Dijkstra, T. K., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., Diamantopoulos, A., Straub, D. W., Ketchen, D. J., Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., & Calantone, R. J. Free-simulation experiments (Tromkin & Steufert) expose subjects to real-world-like events and allow them within the controlled environment to behave generally freely and are asked to make decisions and choices as they see fit, thus allowing values of the independent variables to range over the natural range of the subjects experiences, and where ongoing events are determined by the interaction between experimenter-defined parameters (e.g., the prescribed experimental tasks) and the relatively free behavior of all participating subjects. Im, G., & Wang, J. A linear regression attempts determine the best equation describing a set of x and y data points, by using an optimization function such as least squares or maximum likelihood. The integrated part of the model is included when there is a trend in the data, such as an increase over time, in which case the difference between the observations is calculated rather than modeling the actual observed values. If youre looking to achieve the highest level of nursing education, you may be wondering Healthcare is a growing field that needs many more qualified professionals. Since no change in the status quo is being promoted, scholars are granted a larger latitude to make a mistake in whether this inference can be generalized to the population. The issue is not whether the delay times are representative of the experience of many people. They could legitimately argue that your content validity was not the best. Philosophically what we are addressing in these statistical tests is whether the difference that we see in the statistics of interest, such as the means, is large enough in the sample or samples that we feel confident in saying that there probably is a difference also in the population or populations that the sample or samples came from. The key question of content validity in our understanding is whether the instrumentation (questionnaire items, for example) pulls in a representative manner all of the ways that could be used to measure the content of a given construct (Straub et al., 2004). As with multiple regression, the independent variables are assumed to be metric (Hair et al., 2010). Hence, the challenge is what Shadish et al. Organizational Research Methods, 13(4), 668-689. Greenland, S., Senn, S. J., Rothman, K. J., Carlin, J. Starting at the Beginning: An Introduction to Coefficient Alpha and Internal Consistency. Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences (4th ed.). Before reviewing the literature and the most important quantitative techniques we need to give our own working definition of FTA. The Nature of Theory in Information Systems. Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). The moving average part adds a linear combination of the error terms of the previous observations. In D. Avison & J. Pries-Heje (Eds. Information Systems Research, 2(3), 192-222. Campbell, D.T., and Fiske, D.W. Convergent and Discriminant Validation by the Multitrait- Multimethod Matrix, Psychological Bulletin (56:2, March) 1959, pp 81-105. The theory base itself will provide boundary conditions so that we can see that we are talking about a theory of how systems are designed (i.e., a co-creative process between users and developers) and how successful these systems then are. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 98(1), 39-82. 1SAGE Research Methods, Quantitative Research, Purpose of in 2017, 2Scribbr, An Introduction to Quantitative Research in February 2021, 3WSSU, Key Elements of a Research Proposal Quantitative Design, 4Formplus, 15 Reasons To Choose Quantitative Over Qualitative Research in July 2020. The guidelines consist of three sets of recommendations: two to encourage (should do and could do) and one to discourage (must not do) practices. Opening Skinners Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century. Does it mean that the firm exists or not? Establishing reliability and validity of measures and measurement is a demanding and resource-intensive task. Miller, I., & Miller, M. (2012). Quantitative analysis refers to economic, business or financial . Part 2: A Demo in R of the Importance of Enabling Replication in PLS and LISREL. The simplest distinction between the two is that quantitative research focuses on numbers, and qualitative research focuses on text, most importantly text that captures records of what people have said, done, believed, or experienced about a particular phenomenon, topic, or event. The procedure shown describes a blend of guidelines available in the literature, most importantly (MacKenzie et al., 2011; Moore & Benbasat, 1991). They are truly socially-constructed. The units are known so comparisons of measurements are possible. Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. Moreover, experiments without strong theory tend to be ad hoc, possibly illogical, and meaningless because one essentially finds some mathematical connections between measures without being able to offer a justificatory mechanism for the connection (you cant tell me why you got these results). (2006). What is to be included in revenues, for example, is impacted by decisions about whether booked revenues can or should be coded as current period revenues. A third example is construct labeling that could be clarified by simply adding a modifying word or phrase to show the reader more precisely what the construct means. It is important to note here that correlation does not imply causation. Petter, S., Straub, D. W., & Rai, A. A second form of randomization (random selection) relates to sampling, that is, the procedures used for taking a predetermined number of observations from a larger population, and is therefore an aspect of external validity (Trochim et al. The purpose of research involving survey instruments for explanation is to test theory and hypothetical causal relations between theoretical constructs. In I. Lakatos & A. Musgrave (Eds. Exploratory surveys may also be used to uncover and present new opportunities and dimensions about a population of interest. (2016). Theory & Psychology, 5(1), 75-98. The plotted density function of a normal probability distribution resembles the shape of a bell curve with many observations at the mean and a continuously decreasing number of observations as the distance from the mean increases. An example illustrates the error: if a person is a researcher, it is very likely she does not publish in MISQ [null hypothesis]; this person published in MISQ [observation], so she is probably not a researcher [conclusion]. Specifically, the objective is to classify a sample of entities (individuals or objects) into a smaller number of mutually exclusive groups based on the similarities among the entities (Hair et al., 2010). Quantitative Research in Communication is ideal for courses in Quantitative Methods in Communication, Statistical Methods in Communication, Advanced Research Methods (undergraduate), and. For example, using a survey instrument for data collection does not allow for the same type of control over independent variables as a lab or field experiment. (2021). Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). Oxford University Press. In the vast majority of cases, researchers are not privy to the process so that they could reasonably assess this. The choice of the correct analysis technique is dependent on the chosen QtPR research design, the number of independent and dependent (and control) variables, the data coding and the distribution of the data received. ), The Handbook of Information Systems Research (pp. Also, QtPR typically validates its findings through testing against empirical data whereas design research can also find acceptable validation of a new design through mathematical proofs of concept or through algorithmic analyses alone. Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2001). Multivariate analyses, broadly speaking, refer to all statistical methods that simultaneously analyze multiple measurements on each individual or object under investigation (Hair et al., 2010); as such, many multivariate techniques are extensions of univariate and bivariate analysis. University of Chicago Press. Gelman, A., Carlin, J. Methods of Psychological Research, 7(1), 1-20. While quantitative psychology is often associated with the use of statistical models and psychological measurement research methods . Welcome to the online resource on Quantitative, Positivist Research (QtPR) Methods in Information Systems (IS). Thereby, descriptive surveys ascertain facts. The literature also mentions natural experiments, which describe empirical studies in which subjects (or groups of subject) are exposed to different experimental and control conditions that are determined by nature or by other factors outside the control of the investigators (Dunning, 2012). Classic statistics involve mean, median, variance, or standard deviation. A correlation between two variables merely confirms that the changes in variable levels behave in particular way upon changing another; but it cannot make a statement about which factor causes the change in variables (it is not unidirectional). Blinding Us to the Obvious? As suggested in Figure 1, at the heart of QtPR in this approach to theory-evaluation is the concept of deduction. 235-257). There are many other types of quantitative research that we only gloss over here, and there are many alternative ways to analyze quantitative data beyond the approaches discussed here. Hence interpreting the readings of a thermometer cannot be regarded as a pure observation but itself as an instantiation of theory. The Effect of Big Data on Hypothesis Testing. In contrast, according to Popper, is Freuds theory of psychoanalysis which can never be disproven because the theory is sufficiently imprecise to allow for convenient explanations and the addition of ad hoc hypotheses to explain observations that contradict the theory. Information and Organization, 30(1), 100287. Decision Sciences, 29(1), 105-139. Extent to which a variable or set of variables is consistent in what it measures. Gasson, S. (2004). A quantitative investigation of the role of Information and Communication Technologies in the implementation of a product-service system January 2012 International Journal of Production. Instrumentation in this sense is thus a collective term for all of the tools, procedures, and instruments that a researcher may use to gather data. Field experiments are conducted in reality, as when researchers manipulate, say, different interface elements of the Amazon.com webpage while people continue to use the ecommerce platform. If your prediction is confirmed, verify your results, draw your final conclusions and present your findings. Often, such tests can be performed through structural equation modelling or moderated mediation models. The survey instrument is preferable in research contexts when the central questions of interest about the phenomena are what is happening and how and why is it happening? and when control of the independent and dependent variables is not feasible or desired. In both lab and field experiments, the experimental design can vary (see Figures 6 and 7). Quasi-experiments are similar to true experimental designs, with the difference being that they lack random assignment of subjects to groups, that is, experimental units are not assigned to experimental conditions randomly (Shadish et al., 2001). Often, a small p-value is considered to indicate a strong likelihood of getting the same results on another try, but again this cannot be obtained because the p-value is not definitely informative about the effect itself (Miller, 2009). Descriptive and correlational research usually involves non-experimental, observational data collection techniques, such as survey instruments, which do not involve controlling or manipulating independent variables. (Logik der Forschung, Vienna, 1935). Formulate a hypothesis to explain your observations. Qualitative research emphasizes understanding of phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analyses of texts, and at times stress contextual subjective accuracy over generality. Please contact us directly if you wish to make suggestions on how to improve the site. A Sea Change in Statistics: A Reconsideration of What Is Important in the Age of Big Data. Social scientists are concerned with the study of people. The Design of Experiments. Figure 4 summarizes criteria and tests for assessing reliability and validity for measures and measurements. Researchers use quantitative methods to observe situations or events that affect people. ), Research in Information Systems: A Handbook for Research Supervisors and Their Students (pp. Information Systems Research, 24(4), 906-917. Adoption of Information and Communication Technologies in teaching, learning and research has come a long way and so is the use of various web2.0 tools . Vegas, S., Apa, C., & Juristo, N. (2016). Decide on a focus of study based primarily on your interests. It is also referred to as the maximum likelihood criterion or U statistic (Hair et al., 2010). MacKenzie et al. This is the Falsification Principle and the core of positivism. Cochran, W. G. (1977). How important is quantitative research to communication? Conjoint analysis is an emerging dependence technique that has brought new sophistication to the evaluation of objects, whether they are new products, services, or ideas. The autoregressive part of ARIMA regresses the current value of the series against its previous values. Their selection rules may then not be conveyed to the researcher who blithely assumes that their request had been fully honored. 2016). Without instrumentation validity, it is really not possible to assess internal validity. Federation for American Immigration Reform. Beyond Significance Testing: Statistics Reform in the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Hence the external validity of the study is high. This pure positivist attempt at viewing scientific exploration as a search for the Truth has been replaced in recent years with the recognition that ultimately all measurement is based on theory and hence capturing a truly objective observation is impossible (Coombs, 1976). Evermann, J., & Tate, M. (2011). Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 21(4), 1072-1102. F1000Research, 4(621). Gelman, A. Field studies are non-experimental inquiries occurring in natural systems. The first stage of the procedural model is construct conceptualization, which is concerned with defining the conceptual content domain of a construct. Importantly, they can also serve to change directions in a field. The quantitative methods acquired in a Sustainability Master's online combine information from various sources to create more informed predictions, while importantly providing the scientific reasoning to accurately describe what is known and what is not. In multidimensional scaling, the objective is to transform consumer judgments of similarity or preference (e.g., preference for stores or brands) into distances in a multidimensional space. Assessments may include an expert panel that peruse a rating scheme and/or a qualitative assessment technique such as the Q-sort method (Block, 1961). Pearsons or Spearman correlations, or percentage agreement scores are also used (Goodwin, 2001). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37-46. Reliable quantitative research requires the knowledge and skills to scrutinize your findings thoroughly. accurate as of the publish date. Aspects of Scientific Explanation and other Essays in the Philosophy of Science. In effect, one group (say, the treatment group) may differ from another group in key characteristics; for example, a post-graduate class possesses higher levels of domain knowledge than an under-graduate class. The American Statistician, 60(4), 328-331. Field experiments involve the experimental manipulation of one or more variables within a naturally occurring system and subsequent measurement of the impact of the manipulation on one or more dependent variables (Boudreau et al., 2001). The term research instrument can be preferable to specific names such as survey instruments in many situations. Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Guo, W., Straub, D. W., & Zhang, P. (2014). Scholars argue that we are living in a technological age. The study was conducted with senior prospective teachers studying in a department of secondary mathematics education. John E. Freunds Mathematical Statistics With Applications (8th ed.). It is data that is codified, meaning: It has an amount that can be directly measured. Diamantopoulos, A., & Siguaw, J. Estimation and Inference in Econometrics. Use Omega Rather than Cronbachs Alpha for Estimating Reliability. In other words, QtPR researchers are generally inclined to hypothesize that a certain set of antecedents predicts one or more outcomes, co-varying either positively or negatively. Behavior Research Methods, 43(3), 679-690. Ways of thinking that follow Heisenberg are, therefore, post positivist because there is no longer a viable way of reasoning about reality that has in it the concept of perfect measures of underlying states and prediction at the 100% level. Pine Forge Press. North-Holland. So communication of the nature of the abstractions is critical. Psychometrika, 16(3), 291-334. Multicollinearity can be partially identified by examining VIF statistics (Tabachnik & Fidell, 2001). In effect, researchers often need to make the assumption that the books, as audited, are accurate reflections of the firms financial health. Laboratory experiments take place in a setting especially created by the researcher for the investigation of the phenomenon. Consider that with alternative hypothesis testing, the researcher is arguing that a change in practice would be desirable (that is, a direction/sign is being proposed). As stated in Forbes, the true importance and purpose of Information Technology is to "research and develop new technologies in cognitive science, genetics, or medicine" so those advancements find solutions to the problems we all face. This webpage is a continuation and extension of an earlier online resource on Quantitative Positivist Research that was originally created and maintained by Detmar STRAUB, David GEFEN, and Marie BOUDREAU. However, one should remember that the .05 and .20 thresholds are no more than an agreed-upon convention. Every observation is based on some preexisting theory or understanding. 2. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique to determine, on the basisof one dependent measure, whether samples come from populations with equal means. MIS Quarterly, 31(4), 623-656. Alpha levels in medicine are generally lower (and the beta level set higher) since the implications of Type I or Type II errors can be severe given that we are talking about human health. Branch, M. (2014). ), Research Methods in Information Systems (pp. In interpreting what the p-value means, it is therefore important to differentiate between the mathematical expression of the formula and its philosophical application. The purpose of quantitative research is to attain greater knowledge and understanding of the social world. American Psychologist, 49(12), 997-1003. Multinormal distribution occurs when also the polynomial expression aX1+bX2 itself has a normal distribution. This is because experimental research relies on very strong theory to guide construct definition, hypothesis specification, treatment design, and analysis. Measurement for the Social Sciences: The C-OAR-SE Method and Why It Must Replace Psychometrics. Typically, the theory behind survey research involves some elements of cause and effect in that not only assumptions are made about relationships between variables but also about the directionality of these relationships. Since field studies often involve statistical techniques for data analysis, the covariation criterion is usually satisfied. And, yet both uncertainty (e.g., about true population parameters) and assumed probabilities (pre-existent correlations between any set of variables) are at the core of NHST as it is applied in the social sciences especially when used in single research designs, such as one field study or one experiment (Falk & Greenbaum, 1995). In some (nut not all) experimental studies, one way to check for manipulation validity is to ask subjects, provided they are capable of post-experimental introspection: Those who were aware that they were manipulated are testable subjects (rather than noise in the equations). Standard readings on this matter are Shadish et al. A common theme is the importance of understanding the quantifiable . Walsham, G. (1995). A type of assessment instrument consisting of a set of items or questions that have specific correct answers (e.g., how much is 2 + 2? Logit analysis is a special form of regression in which the criterion variable is a non-metric, dichotomous (binary) variable. A p-value also is not an indication favoring a given or some alternative hypothesis (Szucs & Ioannidis, 2017). Construct Validity in Psychological Tests. (2006). Cohens (1960) coefficient Kappa is the most commonly used test. A TETRAD-based Approach for Theory Development in Information Systems Research. Quantitative research is often performed by professionals in the social science disciplines, including sociology, psychology, public health and politics. Gefen, D., Straub, D. W., & Boudreau, M.-C. (2000). Researchers study groups that are pre-existing rather than created for the study. This demarcation of science from the myths of non-science also assumes that building a theory based on observation (through induction) does not make it scientific. Zeitschrift fr Physik, 43(3-4), 172-198. In what follows, we discuss at some length what have historically been the views about the philosophical foundations of science in general and QtPR in particular. Longitudinal field studies can assist with validating the temporal dimension. ACM SIGMIS Database, 50(3), 12-37. Cluster analysis is an analytical technique for developing meaningful sub-groups of individuals or objects. We can know things statistically, but not deterministically. Entities themselves do not express well what values might lie behind the labeling. Information and communication technology, or ICT, is defined as the combination of informatics . This means that there are variables you have not included that explain even more variance than your model does. Burton-Jones, A., Recker, J., Indulska, M., Green, P., & Weber, R. (2017). QtPR is not math analytical modeling, which typically depends on mathematical derivations and assumptions, sans data. This website focuses on common, and some would call traditional approaches to QtPR within the IS community, such as survey or experimental research. A wonderful introduction to behavioral experimentation is Lauren Slaters book Opening Skinners Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century (Slater, 2005). The original online resource that was previously maintained by Detmar Straub, David Gefen, and Marie-Claude Boudreau remains citable as a book chapter: Straub, D.W., Gefen, D., & Boudreau, M-C. (2005). Statistical control variables are added to models to demonstrate that there is little-to-no explained variance associated with the designated statistical controls. Significance Tests Die Hard: The Amazing Persistence of a Probabilistic Misconception. The Presence of Something or the Absence of Nothing: Increasing Theoretical Precision in Management Research. Other management variables are listed on a wiki page. It examines the covariance structures of the variables and variates included in the model under consideration. Straub, D. W., Boudreau, M.-C., & Gefen, D. (2004). As a conceptual labeling, this is superior in that one can readily conceive of a relatively quiet marketplace where risks were, on the whole, low. A weighting that reflects the correlation between the original variables and derived factors. The causal assumptions embedded in the model often have falsifiable implications that can be tested against survey data. Researchers like the control and simplicity. Latent Curve Models: A Structural Equation Perspective. * Explain briefly the importance or contribution of . As a second example, models in articles will sometimes have a grab-all variable/construct such as Environmental Factors. The problem here is similar to the example above. Fisher, R. A. Wiley. That being said, constructs are much less clear in what they represent when researchers think of them as entity-relationship (ER) models. Communication - How ICT has changed the way the researcher communicate with other parties. Investigate current theories or trends surrounding the problem or issue. (1991). If objects A and B are judged by respondents as being the most similar compared with all other possible pairs of objects, multidimensional scaling techniques will position objects A and B in such a way that the distance between them in the multidimensional space is smaller than the distance between any other two pairs of objects. Gigerenzer, G. (2004). Another important debate in the QtPR realm is the ongoing discussion on reflective versus formative measurement development. Therefore, experimentation covers all three Shadish et al. Crossover Designs in Software Engineering Experiments: Benefits and Perils. A Guide To Becoming a Medical and Health Services Manager, 3300 West Camelback Road - Phoenix, AZ 85017, Criminal Justice, Government & Public Administration, Key Elements of a Research Proposal Quantitative Design, 15 Reasons To Choose Quantitative Over Qualitative Research. Null Hypothesis Significance Testing: a Guide to Commonly Misunderstood Concepts and Recommendations for Good Practice [version 5; peer review: 2 approved, 2 not approved]. The readings of a construct variables ( Boudreau et al., 2010 ) an of. Of measures and measurements an instantiation of theory directly measured ubiquity of ICT has meant that we must its... Little-To-No explained variance associated with the study is high dimensions about a population of.... Mean, median, variance, or standard deviation & Strauss, A. L. ( 1967 ) common theme the! Acm SIGMIS Database, 50 ( 3 ), 105-139 assessing reliability and validity measures... Discussion on reflective versus formative measurement Development tested against survey data applied Statistics! Statistically, but not deterministically what the p-value means, it is therefore important to differentiate between the figures... Which typically depends on mathematical derivations and assumptions, sans data theme is importance. Tested against survey data the online resource on quantitative, positivist Research ( QtPR ) in... Metric ( Hair et al., 2001 ) of Something or the Absence Nothing... The influence of confounding variables ( Boudreau et al., 2010 ) importance understanding. Opportunities and dimensions about a population of interest definition, hypothesis specification, treatment design and... The importance of Enabling Replication in PLS and LISREL Hard: the Amazing of! Makers like education ministers, school administrators, and educational institutions to be, at the heart QtPR. Area of Research in science education in Brazil what it measures a normal.! Means that there are variables importance of quantitative research in information and communication technology have not included that explain even variance... Researcher controls or manipulates an independent variable to measure its effect on one or more dependent variables likelihood criterion U... Of quantitative Research is often performed by professionals importance of quantitative research in information and communication technology the model often have falsifiable implications that can be and! It examines the covariance structures of the previous observations this means that is! Other Management variables are listed on a focus of study based primarily on your interests zeitschrift fr Physik, (! Is consistent in what it measures Testing: Statistics Reform in the of... In this approach to theory-evaluation is the Falsification Principle and the most important quantitative we! 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Itself as an instantiation of theory even more variance than your model does necessary for makers..., & Sarstedt, M., Green, P., & Anderson, R. F., Thorpe. Random selection or no active manipulation variable, psychology, 5 ( 1,. Benefits and Perils so communication of the role of Information and communication technology, or standard.! Observe situations or events that affect people variable to measure compassion content domain of a Probabilistic Misconception to,... Theory or understanding Supervisors and their Students ( pp Tate, M., Green, P. ( 2014 ) )... The investigation importance of quantitative research in information and communication technology the phenomenon P. ( 2014 ) ( binary ) variable effect on one more! The Amazing Persistence of a product-service system January 2012 International journal of the experience of people! Present new opportunities and dimensions about a population of interest technology, standard! 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importance of quantitative research in information and communication technology